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Introduction
In this chapter I take the position that learning a direct instruction
method is similar to a cross-cultural experience. My observations
are shaped by having recently lived six years in a different culture;
therefore, I have used a cultural perspective to interpret my
initial findings. This was not something I had planned before
the observations began, but rather an impression that grew throughout
the training and the analysis of the data from the training.
Consider this scenario:
A traditional teacher walks into an ECRI classroom. The room
is buzzing with activity. Students are giving timed spelling
tests to one another, reading out loud, saying the main idea and
writing their spelling words. It seems that everyone is doing
something different even reading different stories orally. In
the midst of this chaos the teacher flits from one student to
another giving mastery tests. The timer goes off and everyone
is back in their desks. Within seconds the teacher is reviewing
vocabulary words. The students clap and read in unison. Then
comes new vocabulary presented on cards with particular attention
given to word formation. The students spell, read, make sentences,
write, and correct on command. The traditional teacher stands
open-mouthed, she has never seen anything like this before.
Mansell (1981) believes that "learning to live in a different culture necessitates the construal of new definitions, meanings, and explanations of everyday affairs and the negotiations of an alternative order of assumptions about reality, routineness, and rationality" (p. 96). The traditional teacher is confronted with a situation creating conflict. Her/his beliefs about teaching are challenged. A form of `culture shock' sets in when there are surprises and large contrasts. As the teachers in my study observed the ECRI method in operation those first few days of training, they were astonished. As the training continued, they experienced enthusiasm, then disintegration, forms of hostility, and finally adjustment. In subsequent sections we will look at these phenomena as parts of the process of enculturation. This chapter focuses on the three-week training session, and the results are interpreted largely from a cross-cultural perspective.
The Training
The Setting
The training was intensive lasting from June 18 - July 9.
Teachers were involved in class activities for approximately seven
hours a day, Monday through Thursday, and four hours on Friday.
The training involved children who were present all morning each
day. The afternoons were spent in demonstrations, lecture, question-and-
answer sessions, and preparation time for the next day.
The training took place in an elementary school close to Midwest
University. Initially, three adjoining classrooms which opened
into one another via expandable walls were used. These provided
easy access and freedom of movement for the teachers as they moved
about watching three trainers demonstrate the use of ECRI methods.
In each classroom, six to ten children were being taught, extra
desks had been pushed to the sides and chairs were available for
the teachers. At any point in time, three to ten teachers observed
the trainers as they taught using the ECRI method.
The first day, June 18, was spent in teaching the children the
general behaviors required for the ECRI program. Teachers who
were registered for EDTE436 and EDTE492 could observe while Miss
Sabrina Woods went through the modeling, prompting, and practice
directives for each of the main components of the ECRI program.
The next two mornings, June 19 and June 20, the teachers, 25
in number, were free to observe the three trainers; Dr. Eugene
Haskell, Miss Sabrina Woods, and Miss Clarissa Long as they taught
the basic components: skills, back-up, practice time, reading
enrichment and writing, to approximately 30 children.
In the afternoon the children were not present and time was
spent with the trainers. This was a time for lecture, demonstrations,
and organizational activities. Many teachers stayed later than
5 p.m. as they worked together preparing materials and planning
for teaching.
On the fourth day, June 21, the teachers were expected to begin
practicing all they had observed. Because of the large number
of teachers (25 initially registered), five groups were established
with five teachers in each group. The original three rooms were
used plus two rooms across the hall. The previous day the teachers
had organized themselves so that each one was responsible for
one of the five components: skills, back-up skills, practice time,
reading enrichment, and writing. This established a pattern which
operated throughout the training session. By rotating the schedule,
all teachers had opportunity to practice each component two or
three times.
The Training Components
Dr. Eugene Haskell fashioned the course requirements for EDTE436
(Elementary Language Arts Methods) and EDTE492 (Teaching Developmental
Reading) around the Joyce-Showers training model. Joyce and Showers
found high levels of implementation of innovations associated
with five components: theory, demonstration, practice, feedback,
and coaching (Joyce & Showers, 1988).
Theory
Using material presented in the syllabus, teachers were exposed
to a model for direct instruction. They were taught to teach
skills by modeling, prompting, and practicing. The rationale
for a direct instruction model was presented through a study of
approximately 20 pages of research studies found in Teacher Training
Textbook: Teaching Scheduling and Record Keeping by Ethna Reid.
The teachers were required to read these pages and write an examination
on the content.
Demonstration
For three full mornings at the beginning of training, the teachers
observed the trainers teaching children to read, using the ECRI
method. The teachers were able to observe a variety of minor
adaptations as the trainers taught students at different reading
levels. As the teachers moved from room to room, they observed
the trainers teaching for 100% student response and 100% mastery
of word lists. They noticed the wide use of positive reinforcement,
and it was obvious that the trainers ignored incorrect responses
while reinforcing the desired behavior.
Following the initial three days of demonstration, the teachers
were further exposed to demonstrations by the trainers during
the afternoon sessions. On these occasions, children were not
present. For the demonstration of back-up skills to two groups
simultaneously, all children and teachers met in one classroom
while Miss Sabrina Woods modeled the essential behavior.
Each morning throughout the remainder of the training (approximately
2 1/2 weeks), teachers observed their colleagues as they modeled
the use of ECRI methodologies.
Practice
It would be difficult to estimate the total time spent practicing
after the teachers began teaching the children on June 21. The
actual practice time spent teaching one or two components each
day to real students was minuscule in comparison to the hours
spent practicing on colleagues. Practice was integral to the
training program and teachers were thrown into it almost immediately.
In spite of some initial resistance, teachers came to appreciate
the collegiality and feedback which these various practice sessions
provided. One teacher said:
I have learned that in order to learn something (a strategy),
much practice is a must. Therefore I think that most of the other
methods classes in our school would improve by having this kind
of approach. Not only the theory, but lots of practice should
be included in the Education Teacher Training Curriculum. (V.
1, p. 180)
Feedback
As teachers practiced the various skills, informal feedback
was provided by the trainers as well as the other teachers. It
was a common occurrence to see teachers practicing in pairs during
the afternoon sessions. Often one teacher would be practicing
the skills section for presentation the following morning while
another teacher would be coaching and prompting as needed. The
necessity for helping one another can be appreciated when one
realizes the numbers of directives which teachers were required
to learn. (Directives are separate verbal instructions in sequence
and are memorized word for word.) The directives for the skills
component numbered over 30 and well over 50 directives are needed
to teach penmanship. Other directives needed to teach spelling,
dictation, literal comprehension, inferences, and creative comprehension
were all memorized.
Formal feedback was provided by the trainers following their
evaluation of the teachers presenting the skills component to
the children (part of the course requirements). The written evaluation
was then discussed with the teacher. This time of coaching was
often personal, technical, and usually appreciated. The trainers
also listened to the recitation of directives by individual teachers.
These were marked off a check-list of course requirements and
it was impossible to pass the course without learning all the
directives.
Coaching
"The coaching of teaching occurs in the workplace following
initial training," declare Joyce and Showers (1988, p. 69).
The extent to which this occurred in this research was later
assessed using the typology of working conditions developed by
Szabo (1989). (see p. 63, 196).
In summary, it is clear that all components of the Joyce-Showers
training model were operative throughout this instruction.
Preliminary Findings
Entry Behavior
Those teachers with experience teaching reading generally came
to the training with a background of experience using the basal
reading series adopted by their organization. When asked why
they taught reading the way they did, they responded:
Basically because I was trained the way I do with some personal
innovations of my own through study and reading. I like to try
new ideas. (V. 1, p. 192)
I have found that there have been some excellent results. The children are learning to read, spell, and write. (V. 1, p. 90)
I know of no other way. (V. 1, p. 100)
The teachers came with a sense of openness to new methods since
many were not satisfied with their present methods. They wanted
to increase achievement, help slower students, and in general,
find a more efficient way to teach reading. When asked what their
expectations were for the course, they replied:
I want to learn techniques that will help me structure a different and effective way of teaching my students. (V. 1, p. 145)
I hope to learn how to teach reading, English, and spelling in a systematic, thorough but exciting way. My students are bored right now. (V. 1, p. 69)
Enthusiastic First Reactions
The overwhelming euphoria which I noticed the first few days
was a phenomenon which even the trainers commented on. All the
teachers were excited and intrigued when they saw children responding
to the trainers. The teachers were pleased with the participation;
the speed with which new words were introduced; the high levels
of concentration of even the smallest children; the coordination
of reading, writing, spelling, and vocabulary; and the idea of
mastery learning. For many teachers it was their first exposure
to direct instruction. Their comments indicate their excitement:
I'm excited about it at last a program designed primarily to
teach and not to grade or label! (V. 1, p. 81)
I am extremely impressed with the program. I would like to train other teachers to use this program. (V. 1, p. 19)
I like it. I believe it would work beautifully in a classroom situation. (V. 1, p. 32)
I'm really pleased. It answers questions I had and struggles about the curriculum I was currently using. (V. 1, p. 59)
One of the trainers said she "could not believe the
positive feelings at the beginning. So many were saying they
intended to use ECRI in their own classrooms. . . . I could not
believe their enthusiasm after listening and watching for a few
days" (V. 1, p. 219).
As a participant observer, this immediate reaction was not something
I had anticipated. In my pilot study, the teacher had initially
expressed a lot of hostility. Being acquainted with Hall's Stages
of Concern I knew that his first two stages, "awareness"
and "informational" do not generally portray such positive
attitudes. I had recently used an adapted article by Hoopes (1972)
with a group of international students to whom I taught reading.
I remembered the stages and began to wonder if the learning of
a direct instruction reading approach could be compared with a
cross-cultural experience. At the time I was taking a curriculum
course which required the use of Hall's Stages of Concern and
upon expressing my observations to the professor, I was directed
to Witman (1962). Pursuing the idea of stages in a cross-cultural
experience, I discovered several other authors (Adler, 1975; Mansell,
1981) who identified steps involved in a cultural change. These
are summarized in Table 4. Adler (1975), Hoopes (1972), and Witman
(1962) give as their first stage that of "enthusiastic acceptance
or fascination and curiosity" in a cross-cultural experience.
This was definitely what I observed.
|
Adler (1975) Contact/curiosity Disintegration Reintegration Autonomy Independence |
Witman (1962) Enthusiastic Acceptance Doubt/reservation Resentment Adjustment/self recognition Accommodation/evaluation |
|
Hoopes (1972) Fascination Hostility Recovery Adjustment |
Mansell (1981) Alienation Marginality Acculturation Duality |
Disillusionment
Following quickly on the heels of enamourment was disillusionment
and disintegration. All four authors (Adler, 1975; Hoopes, 1972;
Mansell, 1981; Witman, 1962) discuss a stage where some form of
hostility, doubts, alienation, or disintegration reveals itself.
This reaction is precipitated by the onslaught of new ideas different
from previously held beliefs.
New Ideas
Throughout the three-week training, the teachers were bombarded
with new concepts. Some new ideas they identified were positive
reinforcement, multisensory approaches, mastery, repetition, and
direct instruction of comprehension, penmanship, and vocabulary:
I noticed Sabrina really reinforced good behavior and just ignored
the bad behavior. I've never seen anything like this. It was
not the way I was taught. (V. 1, p. 1)
I did not know how to teach main idea. I've been ruining kids for 16 years. (V. 1, p. 129)
The multisensory approach helps to make sure students who do not learn well with the auditory way learn it the kinesthetic way, etc. I know that for me I could not learn with only the sight method. I'm one who needs to hear and touch to learn effectively. (V. 1, p. 119)
All children can score 100% accuracy, in the proper setting. No child appears threatened. They work in a neat orderly environment. The children themselves expect to score high. (V. 1, p. 35)
Children learn through repetition. These children have learned to recognize sounds. They even appear to enjoy the repetition. They know what to expect. (V. 1, p. 35)
While many teachers were enthusiastically accepting new ideas,
they were in no way prepared for the very real change in attitude
which occurred about the third day. On that day teachers were
informed that they would begin teaching the students using the
ECRI method the next day. Teachers became very concerned about
the demands of the innovation and their adequacy in relationship
to those demands. They said to the trainers, "We need more
time, we've just been introduced to this innovation". They
went home and began to learn the directives. Some had nightmares,
some had stomach aches all experienced rather high levels of
anxiety. Their attitude had very quickly changed to "resentment
and criticism," a stage unique to Witman (1962) and "hostility"
which Hoopes (1972) describes.
These may be identified as "personal" concerns in
Hall's scheme, but something is lost of the nature of these concerns
which is readily retained and identified in Witman (1962) and
Hoopes (1972). Teachers began to grumble and complain. The writing
on the overheads was too small, surely students would have high
levels of eye-strain. The teachers were tired of teaching, why
should they have to continue teaching when they had come to take
a nice easy course to get their certification requirements. It
was unfair of the trainers to expect them to teach. And to have
to supervise the children and clean the rooms, this was REALLY
asking a lot! Criticism was bordering on anger over confusion
of which directives to learn. Some that were printed in the syllabus
were different from the ones in the textbook. During this time
of high "resentment and criticism," three teachers chose
to drop the class. While they were outwardly saying they liked
the methodology and intended to try to use it, they were making
many asides about the training and were generally unhappy with
the expectations placed upon them. Critical of the trainers because
they had received misinformation and had arrived two days late,
their frustration and anxiety spilled over to other teachers and
when they did leave, it was easier for the others to accept what
was happening.
Sproull, Kiesler, and Zubrow (1984), in commenting on adjusting
to an alien culture, suggest that confusion sets in soon after
the realization that the new situation is quite different. The
"confusion about self leads the novice to feel overwhelmed
and to question aspects of his or her self-identity or self-image"
(p. 34).
Self Concerns
The teachers were able to express a number of personal concerns
during the time of the training. These quotations demonstrate
the fragile self concepts present at this time:
I am so self conscious what other people think of me matters
to me. I think I did the word skills better this time than last
time. (V. 1, p. 5)
Knowing people are watching, timing, and judging my performance does not make me comfortable. (V. 1, p. 43)
I dislike the insecurity I am feeling. (V. 1, p. 71)
After seeing Sabrina teach two classes of spelling, I do not
think I can do this. I do not think my brain works fast enough.
Wow! That was something! (V. 1, p. 75)
Being a fairly religious group of teachers, it's not surprising
to find them turning their thoughts to God as a source of comfort
and strength:
I prayed a lot that God would take away my fears doing skills
for the first time. I kept thinking about Psalms 34:4 and Philippians
4:13. (She later brought computer printouts of these texts and
put them up on the board with the schedules). (V. 1, p. 72)
My devotional life is becoming quite deep. I now pray earnestly and without ceasing beats any religion class I ever had! (V. 1, p. 103)
I am memorizing texts (which I have not done before) and two of my friends are too! (V. 1, p. 116)
The disintegration which Adler (1975) identifies is elucidated
best by the wide range of physical manifestations which teachers
experienced. One expressed slight discomfort:
I'm like a circle. It's like a square trying to be fit in a
circle. It does not flow for me it's not smooth, there's conflict.
(V. 1, p. 120)
Many teachers revealed feelings of nervousness, forgetting,
dry mouths, shaking, nauseousness, headaches, and knots in their
stomachs. But the descriptions of dreams best captures the disequilibrium
felt by teachers:
Last night I woke up and someone was screaming `spell and read'. The dog was barking. I jumped out of bed and it was all quiet. You have no idea how vivid this was to me. (V. 1, p. 112)
The nightmares I am having are of words I should teach but do not know. I would say the anxiety is equal to my first day teaching. (V. 1, p. 71)
I dreamt about the directives. I was saying the most `off the wall' things. (V. 1, p. 49)
I had nightmares again trying to think how I would fade the directives and how the kids would respond. I also had nightmares thinking about my supervisor and board and how I would help them to know what I was doing. (V. 1, p. 76)
In an effort to bring some level of continuity out of this state of confusion and frustration, we find the teachers trying to interpret what this new situation means to them. As in a cross-cultural experience, they need to have control of their lives and must endeavor to gain control by trying to make sense of the new situation. A theme running through the data showed how various teachers attempted to define this new strategy.
Program Concerns
Teachers tried to develop an explanation of how ECRI related
to them and often their concerns were expressed in the form of
questions:
I'm wondering how they expect us to use this all day or what?
and do we get vocabulary from social studies and science? (V.
1, p. 1)
If I get too many reading or grade levels in my school, will I still be able to use it? (V. 1, p. 60)
What to do if a child cannot adjust to this system? (V. 1, p. 62)
Using this method can we reach the criteria of the state? How do we implement this in a multigrade school? I'll have 8 levels of reading. (V. 1, p. 79)
Could it be taught to 4th grade? Will the kids get tired of basically the exact same routine every day? (V. 1, p. 163)
With each question, the teachers were saying, "I'm trying to figure out how I'll be able to use ECRI." It was a good indication that recovery and reintegration were beginning.
Reintegration
In the need to reintegrate the self with new values and beliefs
there is a tendency for what Mansell (1981) calls "adaptive
resilience." Berman and McLaughlin (1977) found that adapting
a new strategy was one of the imperatives to implementation.
Adaptations
A number of teachers were clearly in the business of making
adaptations to the program from the very beginning. They "would
not introduce so many words at a time," or they "would
change the directives." Some would require the spelling
words be written rather than spelled orally. Others had ideas
of how to give the points that would be more effective than "running
to the students' desks." One teacher rearranged the room
so the overhead was placed on a higher table. This represented
a fairly major adaptation considering that this took place in
Sabrina's room. Others planned some form of assessment because
it seemed "some words are so easy the children might be able
to read them and spell them without the need of going through
all the routine."
In contrast to those making adaptations were many typified by
this comment:
As to how I would use what I've learned in class. . . well, I'd do exactly what the book suggests and have a successful year! (V. 1, p. 121)
Adjustments
Many teachers recognized that they would have to make adjustments
as far as their way of teaching, but these were in agreement with
the overall ideas presented in the training sessions. Adjustments
indicate that the teacher understands the ECRI program and the
demands it makes on her/him.
I'll have to return books such as handwriting and spelling books.
Purchase materials: overhead paper, spelling strips appropriate
penmanship paper and chart boards. (V. 1, p. 18)
I am becoming more tolerant and receptive to the ECRI method and am formulating plans in my mind for implementing it in my classroom. (V. 1, p. 41)
Probably I will need to use a split schedule as I doubt I'll have time for the whole schedule each day. (V. 1, p. 56)
Practicality Ethic
Doyle and Ponder (1977-78) point out another factor which influences
change. This factor, the practicality ethic, was also a rather
predominant theme throughout the summer training session. The
idea is that teachers attempt to implement a change if they perceive
it as being "practical" something which matches their
idea of what should happen in the classroom. A number of these
links are found in the following statements:
I have (previously) tried to teach the ability to separate root
words from suffixes and prefixes and understand meanings of the
parts. (V. 1, p. 1)
I like the idea of combining all the reading/language arts instruction so the students are being taught in a unified and consistent manner. I have never liked the idea of using so many workbooks. (V. 1, p. 43)
The ECRI method will work for me because I believe in it. I'm disgusted with the old way. I want a method that will bring up the children's achievement levels and less grading for me and something that challenges the kids and has them mastering the words for 100%. (V. 1, p. 65)
I have not been introduced to any strikingly new concepts, because this is the principle I used in teaching riding [horseback] for 20 years, i.e., teach the basics to mastery and encourage the student to look for self-improvement, not external comparison. (V. 1, p. 83)
I have always been branded as a slave-driver, pushing my students to the limits of achievement. I think Dr. Reid, through research, shows this to be better than a laid-back approach. (V. 1, p. 139)
New Beliefs
As the training continued, a sense of ownership of the new ideas
became a dominant motif. Teachers were now saying, "These
new concepts are a part of me." In answer to the question,
"Are you aware of any changes you are experiencing in your
beliefs or attitudes?" they responded:
Yes! Reading groups seated around me are not necessary regardless
of how good I am. (V. 1, p. 129)
I'm beginning to see the advantage of ignoring the activists and rewarding those who are working their little tails off and staying on task. My tendency heretofore has been to supply that negative attention which was sought. (V. 1, p. 104)
Yes! Copying or modeling does work! (V. 1, p. 112)
I'm the principal of my school and I've been teaching grade one. I did not really worry as long as kids were passing and they were quiet. They never did well on the criterion tests, especially the vocabulary but I always just thought there was nothing I could do. These kids come from underprivileged homes and the parents do not use the words so I did not think I could teach them but now I know I can. (V. 1, p. 130)
Yes, many! I am learning how new words may be taught where the coefficient of efficiency is high, for the effort made by the teacher. (V. 1, p. 137)
Yes, my attitude towards teaching with directives has changed. I see the benefit and efficiency of the method better. (V. 1, p. 178)
Yes, I believe we as teachers expect the student to do the
learning, but we do not do an effective job of instructing. Using
this method of instruction guarantees learning. (V. 1, p. 27)
These responses were different from some initial reactions to
the same question when teachers responded, "It's too soon
in a new experience to tell" or "Not yet, I am too shell
shocked" (V. 1, p. 201).
New Skills
The attempts to bring control to the new situation requires
the participant to learn new skills. This is necessary if the
individual is to function in his new role. To be an ECRI teacher,
one has to be able to learn many directives and be able to use
them in discussions, spelling, skills time, and when teaching
comprehension. Some of the tensions involved in learning a new
skill are suggested by the comments below:
It is hard to really learn positive reinforcement. (V. 1, p.
8)
I feel I have learned the skills needed to implement the ECRI program. (V. 1, p. 87)
I did all my words in skills in under 5 minutes each. I feel really good about that. (V. 1, p. 111)
Adler (1975), Mansell (1981), Hoopes (1972), and Witman (1962) identify stages where recovery and adjustment or some type of acculturation and autonomy are evidenced. During the three-week training, this process began when adaptations and adjustments were being made. Also, as new beliefs and skills were developed, the individual was gaining control of certain aspects of the ECRI method in preparation for functioning independently.
Plans
The plans which teachers began to make show that some level
of acculturation had arrived. The teachers were beginning to
see themselves operating in the new role.
I plan to use the next four days to start to get my materials
ready. I'll make two folders, get comprehension paragraphs made
up and copied. Also, all the word cards, mastery tests, word
formation and word discrimination exercises and then get everything
properly filed. (V. 1, p. 64)
I'll have 5 grade levels but I'll have 2 reading groups. I would not have to order the workbooks. (V. 1, p. 61)
Walking out with all of Sabrina's file folders. I am so excited. I'm going to a friend's where I can copy all this stuff, overheads and everything. I know this will work for me. (V. 1, p. 64)
I'm planning to implement. I will only have one group. I'll
teach ECRI in the afternoon when the kindergartners are gone -
could not do it in the morning when the kids are there. (V. 1,
p. 70)
I will force students to think faster and to aim for 100% accuracy and not just be content with making a C. (V. 1, p. 133)
Stages of Concern
Hall's Stages of Concern inventory was administered two times
during the training, the first time about half way through the
training and the second time on the last day. The group results
are given in Figure 2. The profile taken halfway through training
shows the typical results of nonusers. "Nonusers concerns
are normally highest on Stages 0, 1, and 2, and lowest on Stages
4, 5, and 6" (Hall, George, & Rutherford, 1986, p. 36).
The profile taken the last day of class reveals some interesting
concerns. Looking at Figure 2, we note high informational (1)
concerns along with high collaboration (5) concerns. The high
collaboration concerns demand an interpretation! Hall et al.
(1986) suggest that a high 5 and a high 1 means "that there
are concerns about looking for ideas from others reflecting more
a desire to learn from what others know and are doing, rather
than concern for collaboration" (p. 54). Interpreting these
results through a cultural perspective reveals some interesting
insights. Mansell (1981) and Hoopes (1972) discuss times when
the newcomer wants to band together with others from his own country.
From a cultural perspective, high stage 5 concerns indicated
on Figure 2 could be explained as a need to have the uncertainties
and lack of continuity of beliefs resolved through the support
provided by people of one's own culture in this case, other teachers.
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0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 = Awareness 4 = Consequence
1 = Informational 5 = Collaboration
2 = Personal 6 = Refocusing
3 = Management
= Group concerns halfway through training
-- = Group concerns last day of training
Figure 2. Stages of concern about the innovation.
During the training I noticed the way the teachers were attracted
to Sabrina. Of the three trainers, she represented the teachers
most closely. She was a practicing teacher and had used the ECRI
method in her classroom for a full year. At any point in time,
she was surrounded by teachers who needed to test their ideas
against someone like them. As Sproull, Kiesler, and Zubrow (1984)
point out,
Everyone feels confused at times. In ordinary circumstances this
confusion is alleviated by observing what other people do, or
by comparing one's behavior to standards embodied in the environment.
In an alien culture, however, clear comparative information is
lacking. When in addition to this conceptual ambiguity there
is an absence of emotional buffering mechanisms (such as enclaves
set aside for novices), then people experience a loss of control.
Reality shock and confusion lead novices to try to reestablish
control. These attempts can entail mental activity alone, e.g.,
constructing satisfying interpretations of the confusing events.
And they can also entail actions such as increased effort or
talking with other people about the situation. In either case,
aspects of the culture play a part in the control attempts. They
provide sources of information for constructing interpretations
and people who function as comparators or standards against which
the novices can judge their behavior. (pp. 34 & 35)
The cultural interpretation of the results from Stages of
Concern makes a lot of sense. At the end of the training, teachers
were aware that they were going back to their schools where hardly
any support of any kind existed and the need for collaboration
was intensified by this realization.
Mansell (1981) suggests that the final stage of cross-cultural
adjustment occurs when the individual can function equally well
in both cultures. She labels this stage "duality."
More time was needed than just the three-week training to demonstrate
the extent to which the teachers adjusted to this new way of teaching.
The results of the process of change as experienced back in their
own classrooms is the focus of four case studies in the next chapter.
Summary
In this chapter, I have shown that the learning of a direct
instruction reading approach can be likened to a cross-cultural
experience. During the three-week training, teachers moved from
very positive first reactions to a state of disillusionment triggered
largely by the onslaught of new ideas which challenged beliefs
and practices. In a state of disequilibrium, teachers revealed
various concerns with self, physical manifestations, and numerous
uncertainties about ECRI. However, as they connected the new
information with their prior knowledge, reintegration was evidenced.
Teachers began to make adaptations and adjustments to their program,
incorporating new beliefs and skills. At the close of the summer
session, a number had seemingly assimilated the concepts of ECRI
to the degree where they made tangible plans to implement ECRI
in September 1990. The case studies in chapter 5 reveal the intricacies
of the implementation process.