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Summary of the Study
The purpose of this study was to describe the process of
change experienced by teachers as they implement a direct instruction
reading approach ECRI. While a limited research base reveals
that teacher implementation is affected by psychological state,
school climate, and conceptual level, this study endeavored to
expand the knowledge base of staff development by focusing on
cognition and the way different cognitive patterns affect the
learning of a direct instruction reading approach. The study
treats working conditions and cognitive processes as contextual
factors and endeavors to describe the process of change for certain
modal individuals, e.g., low conceptual level, high operational
level, or coached individuals.
Using questionnaires, inventories, and observations, data were
collected from 20 teachers as they proceeded through a three-week
training session in the summer of 1990. Following the training,
the researcher remained in contact with the teachers by telephone
and finally chose four teacher whose experience was documented
in the form of case studies. Using various documents, interviews,
and observations, the process of change was followed over a period
of ten months.
The Findings in Relationship to the
Research Questions
By referring back to the original research questions, a framework
is provided for this summary of findings. Caution when generalizing
across the teacher population is advised in the use of these findings
because they represent results from only four major case studies.
Question 1: What happens to teachers when they try to learn a
new teaching strategy?
The teachers in this study related to the process of learning
a direct instruction reading approach in a way similar to a cross-cultural
experience. Beginning with enthusiastic acceptance, their enamourment
soon changed to disintegration as the differences between ECRI
and their regular practices became obvious. As the demands of
the training and the strategy itself began to "sink in,"
they experienced doubts, hostility, and resentment. While using
the ECRI method, they developed new skills and recovery was evidenced
by the teachers adapting ECRI to make it personally meaningful,
adjusting their previous program to accommodate ECRI and making
specific plans for implementation. In the stage of disintegration,
concerns with self and physical manifestations were a common motif.
Question 2: What factors within the teacher affect the learning
of a direct instruction reading approach?
The cross-case analysis revealed ways in which mind style,
conceptual level, and operational level affected the way teachers
related to the training and implementation of ECRI.
First, during the training, random teachers tended to make more
statements indicating they were adjusting to ECRI than sequential
teachers. They recognized what they would need to do to use ECRI
in their classrooms. During training they also tended to have
more belief changes than sequential teachers. In implementation,
sequential teachers had fewer problems with materials. They were
able to make overheads, flash cards, and charts with precision
and organize them with little difficulty. Sequential individuals
found the atmosphere created by the practice time somewhat chaotic
and set about to specify how students should use the practice
time.
Second, low conceptual level teachers tended to make more statements
in `agreement' with the ECRI program than high conceptual level
teachers. The highly structured ECRI program appeared to meet
their needs. High CL teachers generally experienced more changes
in belief during the training and more independent thinking in
implementation.
Third, differences between high and low operational level were
noted during the training. While high operational level teachers
were making connections with their prior knowledge and adjusting
to ECRI, low operational level teachers viewed the incoming information
as new ideas and indicated they were thoughtfully evaluating ECRI.
High OL teachers recognized they were learning new skills but
generally had more self-concerns and physical manifestations than
did the low OL teachers. All high OL teachers mentioned a dislike
for having to memorize directives.
Question 3: How do teachers relate to other contextual factors
as they implement change?
In assessing working conditions, it was found that two of the
four teachers were working in situations dominated by low support
and high difficulty. With one teacher this appeared to affect
her level of implementation, however, the other teacher was able
to implement more of the critical components of ECRI than the
two teachers who were working under slightly better conditions.
In this study teachers had low expectations for support and
were generally content if parents or administrators did not interfere
with their program. They expected and received little technical
support from principals or supervisors.
Question 4: What changes in their beliefs do teachers experience
as they learn a direct instruction reading approach?
Some teachers who learned ECRI realized a direct instruction
approach placed them in a position of `teaching' more rather than
simply managing materials. These teachers experienced changes
in their beliefs concerning their role as a teacher. While all
teachers are theoretically in agreement with positive reinforcement,
when they saw a demonstration rewarding desired behavior with
points and ignoring negative behavior, they were amazed.
Other teachers were surprised by the way students responded
to the structure and repetition of ECRI. They discovered students
enjoyed practicing until they mastered their spelling lists.
Teachers who had strong beliefs about the inadequacy of using
workbooks did not experience any challenge to their belief system
when they realized the ECRI program does not use workbooks; however,
those teachers who liked workbooks experienced real dissonance
which they had to resolve. Some chose to implement ECRI without
workbooks, some used ECRI with workbooks, while others chose not
to use ECRI and reverted back to their previous practices of using
workbooks.
As teachers proceeded through the training, I noticed that belief
changes were not immediate. In answer to the question, "Are
you aware of any change you are experiencing in your beliefs or
attitudes?" several answered, "Not yet, I am too shell
shocked!" or "It's too soon in a new experience to tell"
(V. 1, p. 201). This confirms Fullan's (1982) suggestion that
possibly "beliefs can be most effectively discussed after
people have had at least some behavioral experience in attempting
new practices" (p. 35). Guskey (1986) also suggests that
teachers' beliefs change after they see changes in student outcomes.
Also Mansell (1981) provides insight from a cross-cultural perspective.
She quotes Schutz (1970) saying that "the experience of
`the stranger' is analyzed in terms of interpretative procedures
and suspension of beliefs" (emphasis supplied). While changes
in beliefs were not immediate in this study, the presence of children
and the opportunity for teachers to practice the ECRI program
on them was a factor in the beliefs that did change as the training
proceeded.
Question 5: Are there aspects in the teacher culture which act
as obstacles in the implementation of ECRI?
Yes! First, the practice of negative reinforcement appears to
be so pervasive and so in-grained in the system that teachers
have a great deal of difficulty learning to ignore bad behavior
and focus on the positive. The teacher who had consciously worked
on positive reinforcement previous to the ECRI training had little
difficulty in using the specific ECRI-type of positive reinforcement.
Overcoming well-established habits, the other teachers struggled
throughout the first year to positively reinforce acceptable behavior
and ignore negative behavior.
Second, the lockstep mentality is quite prevalent among parents
and teachers. In order to implement ECRI, teachers are often required
to break the routine of reading every book in a basal series in
sequence. Students may be required to read a text book different
from their grade level or their placement according to an informal
inventory. This was a major obstacle in the implementation process
of several teachers and ultimately was the reason some did not
continue the use of ECRI. All teachers who eventually implemented
ECRI either brought a mind-set which would allow them to break
this routine progression through textbooks, or changed their minds
in order to implement the suggested pattern of two groups.
Third, laissez-faire teachers dislike the behavioristic overtones
in ECRI. To them it seems too authoritarian and controlling.
Teachers with this attitude did not implement ECRI.
Fourth, misunderstanding by parents, other teachers, or administrators
may prove to be an obstacle to implementation. Of the four teachers
in the case studies, one experienced major parental problems.
Of the other five, one was mandated by her superintendent to
stop using ECRI. Two of the four teachers had other teachers
in their building who were somewhat threatened by their use of
ECRI. Subtly they indicated that they did not need or want to
change.
Question 6: What strategies do teachers use to help them in implementation?
The four teachers in this study devised their own methods for
coping with the change to ECRI. One used positive self-talk,
another used a systematic step-by-step approach, while a third
repeatedly returned to the schedule in the teacher's manual.
The fourth teacher adapted freely. In her efforts to make ECRI
`agree,' she found ways to simplify so it would be more `sensible.'
Question 7: How does a direct instruction reading method (ECRI)
affect the teaching/learning process?
A direct instruction reading approach places teachers more in
control of the teaching/learning process. Some teachers readily
adapt, while others find the control or structure against their
beliefs or practices and are unwilling or unable to change. Those
who continue to use ECRI believe they are `teaching' more, are
more in touch with student learning, and enjoy the high level
of involvement which students experience.
The amount of time required to make materials causes the ECRI
program to be burdensome. While teachers in this study who implemented
were able to prepare the necessary materials for skills and spelling,
none found time to prepare comprehension materials and, hence,
in the first year, no one except Debbie taught comprehension using
a direct instruction format. Debbie purchased comprehension paragraphs
from ECRI headquarters in Utah.
Other Findings
An unexpected finding was the way one teacher in particular
related to the research process. While the others mentioned from
time-to-time that I had helped them resolve problems in relationship
to the implementation of ECRI, Deana made some poignant comments:
I'm glad I got to do this with you because I don't think I would
have spent so much time thinking, if I wouldn't have done this.
. . . I've spent more time thinking about what I've done how
I could make it better. After your visits I would focus more
on the schedule and how I was changing it. I also thought more
about the progress of the kids comparing ECRI with the regular
program. I think I do a lot of thinking anyway but you forced
me to look at details more. (V. 2,
p. 153)
In the methods chapter, I discuss the idea that `changing' is
an interpretative act. Here is an example of one teacher who
not only was actively involved in interpreting the process of
change for herself but was also aware that she was doing it.
This account is encouraging to me as the researcher since one
of my purposes for this study was that reflection would be facilitated
by the case studies and that other teachers would move into a
reflective mode as they read the description of teachers in change.
I now see this as a definite possibility.
Implications of the Study
For Staff Developers
Since teachers relate to inservice training in unique ways,
training which is devised to meet the needs of different teachers
is more successful. Inservice trainers who find ways to address
the issue of reticence among concrete sequential teachers may
be more successful. Strategies could be developed to help these
teachers begin to adjust to the changes required of them if they
are to implement a new strategy like ECRI.
Likewise, with conceptual level, training may be structured
to match the needs of teachers with different conceptual levels.
Wilsey & Killion, (1982) have developed a "framework
for matching adult learning characteristics with appropriate teaching
techniques and supportive follow-up" (p. 36). For example,
they suggest the use of "structured lecture/discussion format
that includes practical examples, frequent checks for understanding
and modeling" for the stage 1 (similar to low CL) learners
whereas the stage 4 learners (similar to high CL) should have
a presentation with "less structured instructional models
that require a greater degree of abstraction, such as problem
solving, simulation, [and] inquiry"
(p. 38). While these ideas of matching are logical, they do not
address the developmental nature of cognition. If staff developers
want teachers in general to be moving toward higher conceptual
levels, then training should be planned which would accomplish
such growth.
In this study, low CL teachers tended to make more statements
indicating their agreement with ECRI than did high CL teachers.
It seems possible that low CL teachers who readily accept the
structure and program suggested by authority figures could be
pressed into new thought patterns if the trainers were less authoritarian.
Thus, rather than a matching model of training, this study suggests
a need for training which would increase teachers' awareness of
their own beliefs concerning teaching (rather than simply agreeing
with the program). This would also be more in agreement with
Hunts' (1987) emphasis on various activities to bring out an individuals'
implicit theories of practice.
Since high operational level teachers in this study were able
to implement more ECRI components than low operational level teachers,
staff developers should consider their unique way of processing
information during the training. Possibly strategies can be developed
so that all teachers would have opportunities to connect new concepts
with their ideas of what is practical in education rather than
simply viewing the concepts in training as new ideas. Also the
ability to conceptualize their own situation and begin adjusting
the new program to their situation appears to be beneficial.
Knowing that the high OL teachers in this study processed information
in ways similar to Kolb's experiential learning cycle and realizing
that some staff development programs (e.g., the 4Mat System, McCarthy,
1990) are based on this cycle, staff developers can continue to
develop ways to increase reflective observations and the formation
of abstract concepts and generalizations about a new program.
Mansell (1981) suggests the use of a journal to "alleviate
tension and clarify issues, goals, and expectations" (p.
106).
The Joyce-Showers training model has shown the value of concrete
experiences (provided in modeling and practicing), however, if
coaching were to address specific issues of beliefs about practicality,
ways the teacher would have to adjust his present program, and
recognition of new skills and beliefs, transfer of knowledge may
be greater. In this study, coaching was non-existent and it may
be that implementing any form of coaching would have changed the
results of this study.
An awareness of the high levels of anxiety present when individuals
are going through cognitive change similar to Kolb's learning
cycle should cause staff developers to look for ways to reduce
these high concerns with self. In the case of ECRI, possibly
fewer components could be introduced in one training session.
Realizing teachers need support in their workplace to implement
a new strategy, it would be wise to actively solicit the support
of administrators and superintendents. Then staff developers
could urge teachers to come to training with someone; a principal,
supervisor, or other teacher who would be available for tangible
support following the training.
In general, these suggestions are in agreement with Albertson's
(1985) review of the literature which found the following factors,
thought to facilitate cognitive development: extended time formats,
seminars and practicums, ongoing supervision, support during disequilibrium,
refection and integration, and empathy (p. 8). The results of
this study provide specifics which may guide these general approaches.
For Teachers
Realization that learning a direct instruction reading approach
takes time, teachers can set up realistic expectations of how
much to try to implement in a certain time frame. Frustrations
would be lessened if teachers were not trying to learn all the
critical components at the same time.
Knowing that learning a new approach may cause disintegration
evidenced by poor self-concepts and physical manifestations such
as dreams and upset stomachs; teachers could be alerted to these
phenomena so when they occur it will not be so surprising.
Recommendations for Further Research
1. Expand the study to include teachers who are implementing other
types of new strategies.
This study described the process by which teachers learned a
direct instruction reading approach. It would be possible to
study teachers who are learning other complex strategies like
cooperative learning to discover whether the patterns found in
this study are present when teachers learn other strategies.
2. Expand the study to include teachers in the public system.
This study describes the process of change as it was experienced
by teachers implementing a new strategy in a parochial system
of education. It would be interesting to know if similar reactions
and problems are evidenced by teachers in the public school system.
3. Expand the study to include high-school teachers.
This study describes the reactions of elementary school teachers
to the process of learning a direct instruction reading approach.
It would be beneficial to know if high-school teachers react
to the process of change in similar ways.
4. Develop a series of techniques that would meet the needs of
various teachers. Use them in an experimental design and assess
the effects they have on implementation.
Since cognitive processes are developmental, it should be possible
to develop techniques that will help the low conceptual level
or low operational level teacher learn new ways of processing
information. Coaching should become more specific and can include
more reflection on beliefs and practices. The training itself
could include various activities which facilitate reflection and
the formation of abstract conceptualizations.
5. Extend the study over a longer time frame.
Teachers in this study were all at the `mechanical use' stage
and since they had not fully implemented ECRI, it is impossible
to know the changes that may yet occur. Also more time is needed
to understand if the teachers sustained the changes they did make.
A longitudinal study over several years would provide answers
to these questions.